Moths in space: The below-canopy structure of forest drives abundance and mobility-related traits of moth communities.

The distribution of species is primarily driven by the availability of trophic resources. In a given forest type, insects trophically related to the dominant tree are expected to be evenly distributed due to the abundance of their foodplant. However, their distribution is also influenced by complex relationships with abiotic and biotic parameters such as available space, predatory pressure, and morphometric traits. In this study, we investigated how the three-dimensional structure of space below the canopy may affect the composition of nocturnal lepidoptera communities. To synthesise the complexity of the dispersal behaviour of these insects, we evaluated easily measurable traits such as wingspan and the presence of tympanic organs, both connected to their mobility and thus potentially influenced by the structure of the available flight space. The study was conducted in the Sila National Park (Italy), where 12 sampling sites were selected in pine forests and an additional 12 in beech forests. Forest spatial structure was investigated using a portable terrestrial laser scanner. Moths were sampled monthly using light traps from May to October in both 2019 and 2020. Among measured forest traits, we observed that the space above three meters from the ground is the only factor influencing community composition. Larger species with tympanic organs prefer environments with less space below tree canopies. Our findings could be the starting point for future studies that investigate a potential defence strategy of moths against bats, as tympanate and larger species not only actively avoid chiropter predation but could also choose denser forests because of a lower bat activity. Moths' distribution and community composition thus appear to be significantly shaped by the spatial structure of forests.

An unexpected species complex unveiled in southern European populations of Phragmatiphila nexa (Hbner, [1808]) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae, Noctuinae, Apameini).

DNA barcoding analyses of Phragmatiphila nexa (Hbner, 1808) populations unveiled an unexpected divergence in mtDNA of Italian populations, showing the existence of three allopatric cryptic species. The northernmost BIN is shared with specimens from most other European countries, the southernmost one includes specimens from Basilicata and Calabria regions, and the last BIN includes specimens from Apennines, Sardinia and Corsica. Wing pattern as well as male and female genitalia support the existence of three different species along the Italian peninsula: Phragmatiphila nexa north of the Po River for which we designate a neotype, Phragmatiphila insularis (Turati, 1913), stat. rev. in the Apennines as well as in Sardinia (and Corsica), and Phragmatiphila parenzani sp. n. in the south. The Italian distribution of the genus Phragmatiphila is presented in detail.

A georeferenced dataset of nocturnal macrolepidoptera: A tool for forest management and biodiversity conservation.

In this paper we provide a georeferenced dataset of raw data concerning occurrence and abundance of nocturnal macrolepidoptera, an insect group largely recognized as a good ecological indicator of forest ecosystems. Data have been collected by using light traps located in 15 beech and 20 Calabrian black pine forest lots, 20 of which included in Natura 2000 sites. The sampling was carried out monthly lasting from May to late October 2019 and 2020 in order to cover the entire period during which favourable conditions for adult monitoring occurred, and to encompass phenological changes occurring across seasons in moth diversity. The dataset is composed by a total of 42,834 individuals belonging to 363 species. Due to the relatively small attractive radius of used light traps (about 25 m), georeferenced lepidopteran data can be easily correlated to any kind of spatial environmental variables and forest attributes and to their temporal variations being useful to quantify also the effects of long-term ecological drivers.

Revision of the Lemonia taraxaci complex, with a description of a new species from Italy and clarification of the status of Lemonia strigata (Lepidoptera: Brahmaeidae: Lemoniinae).

The species Lemonia taraxaci (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1755) is divided into three species based on distribution areas and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) distances above 2%: Central European Lemonia taraxaci (type locality: Austria, Vienna area), Eastern European to South Siberian Lemonia sibirica Wnukowsky, 1934 stat. rev., bona sp. (type locality: Russia, Novosibirsk Oblast, Ozero-Karachi and Russia, Altai Krai, Kornilovo), and Italian Lemonia italiana sp. n. (type locality: Italy, Calabria centr., Sila grd., Casali del Manco, San Nicola Silano (CS)). Authorship of Lemonia strigata Antoshin & Zolotuhin, 2011 is reconsidered. The close relation between the typical L. strigata and taraxaci-like adults from the Balkans is proven genetically. According to this, L. strigata is suggested to be a junior synonym of taraxaci-looking Lemonia taraxaci var. montana Buresch, 1915 (type locality: Bulgaria, Rhodope Mts, Musala), although further DNA investigation is needed to prove this hypothesis.

Traditional and TLS-based forest inventories of beech and pine forests located in Sila National Park: A dataset.

Vegetation structure is a key determinant of species distribution and diversity. Compared to traditional methods, the use of Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) has allowed massive amounts of point cloud data collected for quantifying three-dimensional habitat properties at increasing spatial and temporal scales. We used TLS to characterize the forest plots across a broad range of forest structural diversity, located in the Sila National Park, South Italy. The dataset reports data collected in 24 15-m-radius circular plots, 12 of which were dominated by beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and 12, by black pine (Pinus nigra subsp. laricio). In detail, this work provides dataset of i) plot-level attributes calculated from raw data, such as the number of trees, ii) tree-level data, comprising a total of 1709 trees, with information related to field-based forest inventory such as the diameter at breast height (DBH), and iii) plot-level information related to the time for conducting both traditional field- and TLS-based forest inventories. Compared to traditional methods, the use of TLS allows a very high-resolution quantification of the 3D forest structural properties, also reducing the time for conducting forest inventories.

Revision of the genus Hoplodrina Boursin, 1937 (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae, Xyleninae). I. Hoplodrina octogenaria (Goeze, 1781) and its sister species H. alsinides (Costantini, 1922) sp. rev. in Europe.

The taxonomic status of the European Hoplodrina octogenaria (Goeze, 1781) is discussed and its partly sympatric sister species, Hoplodrina alsinides (Costantini, 1922) sp. rev., is separated and re-described based on morphological and molecular taxonomic evidence. The adults and their genitalia are illustrated and DNA barcodes, as well as genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism data collected by fractional genome sequencing (ddRAD), of the two species are provided.

How long is 3 km for a butterfly? Ecological constraints and functional traits explain high mitochondrial genetic diversity between Sicily and the Italian Peninsula.

Populations inhabiting Mediterranean islands often show contrasting genetic lineages, even on islands that were connected to the mainland during glacial maxima. This pattern is generated by forces acting in historical and contemporary times. Understanding these phenomena requires comparative studies integrating genetic structure, functional traits and dispersal constraints. Using as a model the butterfly species living across the Messina strait (3 km wide) separating Sicily from the Italian Peninsula, we aimed to unravel the mechanisms limiting the dispersal of matrilines and generating genetic differentiation across a narrow sea strait. We analysed the mitochondrial COI gene of 84 butterfly species out of 90 documented in Sicily and compared them with populations from the neighbouring southern Italian Peninsula (1,398 sequences) and from the entire Palaearctic region (8,093 sequences). For each species, we regressed 13 functional traits and 2 ecological constraints to dispersal (winds experienced at the strait and climatic suitability) against genetic differentiation between Sicily and Italian Peninsula to understand the factors limiting dispersal. More than a third of the species showed different haplogroups across the strait and most of them also represented endemic haplogroups for this island. One fifth of Sicilian populations (and 32.3% of endemic lineages) had their closest relatives in distant areas, instead of the neighbouring Italian Peninsula, which suggests high relictuality. Haplotype diversity was significantly explained by the length of the flight period, an intrinsic phenology trait, while genetic differentiation was explained by both intrinsic traits (wingspan and degree of generalism) and contemporary local constraints (winds experienced at the strait and climatic suitability). A relatively narrow sea strait can produce considerable differentiation among butterfly matrilines and this phenomenon showed a largely deterministic fingerprint. Because of unfavourable winds, populations of the less dispersive Sicilian butterflies tended to differentiate into endemic variants or to maintain relict populations. Understanding these phenomena required the integration of DNA sequences, species traits and physical constraints for a large taxon at continental scale. Future studies may reveal if the patterns here shown for mitochondrial DNA are also reflected in the nuclear genome or, alternatively, are the product of limited female dispersal.

Integrating three comprehensive data sets shows that mitochondrial DNA variation is linked to species traits and paleogeographic events in European butterflies.

Understanding the dynamics of biodiversity, including the spatial distribution of genetic diversity, is critical for predicting responses to environmental changes, as well as for effective conservation measures. This task requires tracking changes in biodiversity at large spatial scales and correlating with species functional traits. We provide three comprehensive resources to understand the determinants for mitochondrial DNA differentiation represented by (a) 15,609 COI sequences and (b) 14 traits belonging to 307 butterfly species occurring in Western-Central Europe and (c) the first multi-locus phylogenetic tree of all European butterfly species. By applying phylogenetic regressions we show that mitochondrial DNA spatial differentiation (as measured with GST , G'ST , D and DST ) is negatively correlated with species traits determining dispersal capability and colonization ability. Thanks to the high spatial resolution of the COI data, we also provide the first zoogeographic regionalization maps based on intraspecific genetic variation. The overall pattern obtained by averaging the spatial differentiation of all Western-Central European butterflies shows that the paradigm of long-term glacial isolation followed by rapid pulses of post-glacial expansion has been a pervasive phenomenon in European butterflies. The results and the extensive data sets we provide here constitute the basis for genetically-informed conservation plans for a charismatic group in a continent where flying insects are under alarming decline.

Ptilophora variabilis Hartig, 1968, bona species, and description of Ptilophora nebrodensis sp. n. from Sicily (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae).

In this paper, we redescribe Ptilophora plumigera variabilis Hartig, 1968 and raise it to species rank. Furthermore we describe Ptilophora nebrodensis sp. n. from Sicily, as the third European species belonging to the genus Ptilophora Stephens, 1828. These two species are allopatric vicariants of Ptilophora plumigera (Denis Schiffermüller, 1775) respectively in Apennine Italy and Sicily. We present the differential features mainly concerning the morphology of genitalia and molecular data. Ptilophora variabilis shows a scattered distribution, generally very localized, whereas P. nebrodensis sp. n. is restricted to a few localities in the mountainous areas of North Sicily, being very rare. Both species predominantly inhabit forests in mountain areas, with occurrence of broadleaved trees, especially Acer spp. (Fam. Aceraceae).

Ground beetles in Mediterranean olive agroecosystems: Their significance and functional role as bioindicators (Coleoptera, Carabidae).

The impact of agricultural practices and soil management on the communities of arthropods living in the agricultural landscape is acknowledged as a critical issue by the literature, and it needs to be better investigated to improve the ecological sustainability of agriculture. In the present study, we aimed to study how soil management affect carabid species distribution in one of the most typical agroecosystem of the Mediterranean region, i.e. the olive grove. In South Italy olive plantations feature different types of soil management, from tillage to half- or full-cover cropping. Species distribution has been examined for a total of 10,189 individuals and 62 species collected from 17 sites. Notably from our analysis we have observed that three factors (climax vegetation, soil features and soil management) explained half of the data variability. The composition of species groupings mirrors both bioclimatic conditions (climax vegetation) and soil features, especially watering, while soil management affects the species distribution, with different intensity from site to site. Eleven species have been recognized as the most abundant in the different facets of the studied olive groves and consequently designated as characteristics of the olive agroecosystem. The species traits of the sampled species have been weighted for a compelling evaluation of the effects of agricultural management on biodiversity, showing uniform traits distribution when coping with the ecological factors that characterize the different plantation facets. We have found that carabid beetles can be used as model organisms for studying the effects of agricultural practices. Our study suggests that the interaction of man-induced trasformation with the natural background of the olive agroecosystem may be difficult to disentangle, so that such complexity must be taken into account when carabid beetles are expected to provide an ecosystem service for good agricultural practices.

Darkness as factor influencing the oviposition delay in Calliphora vicina (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

Many environmental and intrinsic factors (e.g. limited access to the body) can disrupt insect activity, causing a delay in the colonization of a corpse. These elements could hinder an accurate estimation of the minimum Post-mortem Interval (minPMI), raising questions about the limits of forensic entomology. Blow fly are considered mainly diurnal and relatively inactive at night, at extreme temperatures and in dark conditions. Data on their ability to lay eggs in darkness and in laboratory conditions are scarce. Oviposition by Calliphoridae during the day but in darkness has been documented in chimneys, cellars and cars. To investigate delays in oviposition in the dark we carried out laboratory experiments using plastic boxes containing Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy specimens placed in a climatic chambers at different temperatures. We found that C. vicina laid eggs in complete darkness inside the plastic boxes, but later than the specimens inside the boxes at light condition. We believe that oviposition can occur in dark indoor environments in conditions of optimal air temperature, gravid flies and an accessible corpse. However, when corpses are discovered in dark environments, entomologists should consider a significant delay in oviposition by blow fly in order to reduce errors in PMI estimation.

Nothocasis rosariae sp. n., a new sylvicolous, montane species from southern Europe (Lepidoptera: Geometridae, Larentiinae).

In this paper, we describe Nothocasis rosariae sp. n. as the second European species belonging to the genus Nothocasis Prout, 1937. Differential features from its allopatric sibling species N. sertata (Hübner, 1817) are presented basing on wing pattern, morphology of male and female genitalia, and molecular data (COI barcode region). The type series is designated from southern Italy, but one examined specimen was collected in Epirus, Greece. The largest phenotypic and genetic variation was observed in the Pollino Massif, northern Calabria, whilst the population of the locus typicus in the Sila Massif, central Calabria, appears to be more homogeneous. 128 individuals were collected in mountainous beech forests from late August to mid-November. We hypothesize that larvae of N. rosariae sp. n. feed on Fagus sylvatica whilst those of its sibling species, N. sertata, feed on Acer.

Historical and contemporary factors generate unique butterfly communities on islands.

The mechanisms shaping island biotas are not yet well understood mostly because of a lack of studies comparing eco-evolutionary fingerprints over entire taxonomic groups. Here, we linked community structure (richness, frequency and nestedness) and genetic differentiation (based on mitochondrial DNA) in order to compare insular butterfly communities occurring over a key intercontinental area in the Mediterranean (Italy-Sicily-Maghreb). We found that community characteristics and genetic structure were influenced by a combination of contemporary and historical factors, and among the latter, connection during the Pleistocene had an important impact. We showed that species can be divided into two groups with radically different properties: widespread taxa had high dispersal capacity, a nested pattern of occurrence, and displayed little genetic structure, while rare species were mainly characterized by low dispersal, high turnover and genetically differentiated populations. These results offer an unprecedented view of the distinctive butterfly communities and of the main processes determining them on each studied island and highlight the importance of assessing the phylogeographic value of populations for conservation.

Efficacy of new mass-trapping devices against Bactrocera oleae (Diptera tephritidae) for minimizing pesticide input in agroecosystems.

Decreasing pesticide use in olive groves is central to controlling pathogens and pests such as Bactrocera oleae. This has led to the development of mass trapping devices which not only minimize pesticide use but, with improved efficacy of attractants, also decrease costs associated with pest control and ensures that the quality of olive oil is safe for human consumption. This study was undertaken to test a new device which utilizes reduced quantities of both insecticide (lambda-cyalothrin) as well as the female olive fly pheromone (1,7-dioxaspiro-(5.5)-undecane). The new device was tested against an older device manufactured by the same company. The use of plastic polymers as substrate for encapsulating the pheromone allowed for a slower pheromone release, prolonging the efficacy and duration and thus reducing costs. The density of adult populations was monitored using yellow chromotropic traps that were checked every ten days and the degree of olive infestation, as determined by preimago stages, was assessed by analyzing 100 drupes per plot. Infestation analyses were performed every ten days. The control plot had the lowest density of adults and the highest drupe infestation rate. The new devices were more effective than the older devices in both attracting adults and controlling infestation of drupes. Moreover, the new devices containing reduced amounts of pheromone and insecticide were cheaper and exhibited longer functional efficacy. In addition to the slower release of attractants, the plastic polymers used in these newer devices were also more resistant to mechanical and weather degradations. Results demonstrate that mass trapping can indeed be an effective means of controlling B. oleae via eco-sustainable olive farming.

Evaluation of the impact on entomocoenosis of active agents allowed in organic olive farming against Bactrocera oleae (Gmelin, 1790).

Several attempts for evaluating environmental impact of active agents allowed in organic olive farming against Bactrocera oleae have been made, but very few studies were performed contemporaneously on more than one of them. Insects were chosen as indicators because they are known to react very quickly to environmental perturbations, mainly at the community level. In fact, the coenosis is the functional unit interacting with biotic and abiotic environmental parameters. Seven taxa, known for their sensitivity to habitat alterations, were sampled and grouped in functional groups: predators and parasitoids, phytophagouses and pollinators. The coenotic balance between these two functional groups was analyzed. The study was carried out in an organic olive orchard in the municipality of Terranova da Sibari, Cosenza, Southern Italy. The tested active agents (Azadirachtin, Rotenone, Copper Oxychloride) were sprayed twice (end of September and middle October). During the treatments the population dynamics of all the taxa were knocked-down. No one tested compound seems to be harmless to the entomocoenosis, particularly on phytophagouses and pollinators. In truly organic farming it is necessary to provide natural refuge areas to beneficial insects (i.e. pest antagonists) in which no active agents are sprayed and alternative preys could be found.

Assessment of susceptibility of olive cultivars to the Bactrocera oleae (Gmelin, 1790) and Camarosporium dalmaticum (Thüm.) Zachos & Tzav.-Klon. attacks in Calabria (Southern Italy).

Within the framework of research concerning the application of techniques alternative to chemical pesticides for control of parasites, the C.R.A. Experimental Institute for Olive Growing for many years has been performing a large investigation in order to detect sources of genetic resistance in olive germplasm. In the present study we observed the behavior related to the olive fly (Bactrocera oleae) infestation and Camarosporium dalmaticum infection of ten olive cultivars farmed under the same agronomic and climatic conditions in Calabria, Southern Italy. The sampling and the data collecting were carried out in three different ripening times. The drupe amount of oleuropein and cyanidine was detected by laboratory analyses in order to verify a possible correlation between these molecules and the level of infestation/infection of the above-mentioned parasites. The obtained data were submitted to analysis of variance. In relation to the fungal infection the results displayed that cvs Tonda nera dolce showed the lowest susceptibility, while the cv Giarraffa turned out to be the most susceptible. The less susceptible cultivars to the phytophagous were Tonda nera dolce and Bhardi Tirana. Since the less susceptible cultivar to olive fly attacks are the same observed in relation to the susceptibility to olive fruit rot, it is suggested a relation between the olive fly infestation and the fungal infection. It suggests the utility to achieve these results both to transfer directly to the farmers' world and to emphasize ecosystem health and biodiversity conservation.